Port Central America: Three Countries, Three Models, One Unresolved Interface

4 Settembre, 2026

Speaking of port cities in Central America seems, at first glance, to mean speaking of five or six disparate cases held together by the accident of a narrow geography. A closer reading reveals something else: three divergent historical trajectories sharing a single bi-oceanic corridor and a single unresolved tension between the port as a node of the global economy and the city as an inhabited space. The region is, in this sense, a privileged laboratory for rethinking the port-city interface from the Global South.

The European analytical tradition – consolidated in RETE and AIVP since the 1980s, with the waterfront as its central category and patrimonial regeneration as its horizon – has produced an extraordinarily useful vocabulary, developed however from the particular experience of Genoa, Rotterdam, Hamburg or Barcelona. That framework presupposes a pre-existing dense city reclaiming its waterfronts from a retreating industrial port. In Latin America, and particularly in Central America, the equation is different: the port does not retreat but expands, the city does not reclaim but resists, and the interface is not a matter of urban design but of sovereignty, governance and distribution of the surplus. Applying the European model without this mediation produces diagnoses that are elegant but inoperative.

The Comprehensive Research Programme for the Development of Port Cities (PROCIP), based at the Research Vice-Rectorship of the Universidad Estatal a Distancia (UNED) in Costa Rica, turns eighteen in 2026 studying these asymmetries. This maturity allows us to look at the region through a conceptual tool of our own: not a mere adaptation of the European framework, but an analytical approach that takes seriously port informality, long-term concessions to global operators, conflicts with coastal communities, and the logistical dependence of economies exporting low value-added goods. From this enunciative position, three national cases illuminate the region.

Panama: The Hub as Destination and as Trap

Panama built, around the Canal, the largest port system in Latin America. In 2025 it handled close to ten million TEU, with 89 percent corresponding to transhipment operations [1]. The terminals of the Balboa-Cristóbal-Manzanillo-Colón-Rodman axis concentrate leading global operators – SSA Marine, PSA, Evergreen, and until recently CK Hutchison – in a model that for two decades was presented as the unquestioned port success story of the hemisphere. The relationship with the cities of Colón and Panama City, however, was never studied with the rigour applied to operational efficiency. The 2026 judicial ruling that voided Panama Ports Company’s concession over Balboa and Cristóbal, and their re-tendering in the midst of the geopolitical contest between the United States and China for control of those terminals, reveals the structural fragility of the model: a world-class hub can be enormously profitable while never having resolved the question of which city it belongs to.

Honduras: The Long Concession and the Absent City

Puerto Cortés illustrates a different strategy. In 2013, Honduras granted the Philippine-based ICTSI – through its subsidiary Operadora Portuaria Centroamericana (OPC) – a thirty-year concession for the container and general cargo terminal. The operational results are remarkable: over 250 million US dollars invested, 805,000 TEU in 2025 – a historical record – and the status of the only port in the CA-4 region capable of receiving the largest vessels on the Atlantic trade [2]. Puerto Cortés as a port city, however, barely exists in the regional literature: the scale of the terminal exceeds any urban framework, and the port-city interface is reduced to direct employment and fiscal spillovers. Here the European framework proves particularly blind: there is no waterfront to regenerate, because there never was a consolidated city that lost its water’s edge to the port.

Costa Rica: Three Tensions, One Laboratory

Costa Rica offers, precisely because it lacks a major transhipment hub, the richest scenario for thinking the interface. Three cases function as three distinct tensions – Caldera, Limón-Moín, Puntarenas – and each illuminates a dimension that the European repertoire does not contemplate.

Caldera

Caldera, on the Pacific, concessioned since 2006 to a private consortium under a tool-port model, embodies the tension between a terminal technically overtaken by the logistical demand of the Costa Rican interoceanic corridor and a municipality – Esparza – that barely participates in decisions about its own coastline. The debate over Caldera’s expansion, oscillating between partial concessions and the prospect of a new port in the Central Pacific, has dragged on for more than a decade without institutional resolution.

Limón-Moín and the figure of JAPDEVA

Limón-Moín, on the Caribbean, is the case that best reveals why European analytics fall short. Since 2019 the Moín Container Terminal (TCM) has operated there, concessioned for thirty-three years to APM Terminals, a subsidiary of the Dutch group A.P. Møller-Maersk. The terminal is today the main containerised asset of the Central American Caribbean and concentrates virtually all the cargo once handled by the state-owned docks. But the feature that turns Limón into an analytically singular case lies not in the private terminal, but in the public institution that coexists with it: the Junta de Administración Portuaria y de Desarrollo Económico de la Vertiente Atlántica (JAPDEVA –the Atlantic Port Administration and Economic Development Board).

JAPDEVA is not a port authority in the European sense. It is an autonomous institution of the Costa Rican State, created in 1963, that for more than half a century concentrated three functions in a single legal figure: it operated the state ports of Limón and Moín, exercised the port regulatory authority over the Atlantic seaboard and, as explicitly stated in its founding law, took on the mandate of driving the economic and social development of the entire province. This triple condition – operator, regulator, and regional development agency – has no clear equivalent in the European tradition, where the three functions are usually institutionally separated. The start of operations of the TCM in 2019 destabilised the first of these three pillars: JAPDEVA ceased to be the dominant operator of the Costa Rican Caribbean and, in return, receives monthly 7.5 percent of APM Terminals’ gross revenue over the thirty-three years of the concession – a royalty estimated at around one billion US dollars over the life of the contract, legally earmarked for development projects in the province of Limón [3].

Here lies the particularity that a European reader will hardly recognise without mediation: JAPDEVA stopped operating a port and became, in practice, a public regional development agency financed by the royalties of a private concessionaire. In theory, the design implies a virtuous redistributive mechanism: global port rent translated into local public investment. Reality has been considerably more complex. The transition required a restructuring that reduced the workforce from over 1,200 to around 400 employees, a process marked by judicial conflicts, embargoes promoted by the trade union and accumulated labour debts. By 2025, audits by the Comptroller General of the Republic documented that, of the approximately 102 million US dollars already transferred by APM Terminals, only a small fraction had actually been executed in projects, and a significant share of the signed agreements had not even begun their construction phase. The royalty, conceived as an engine of development, accumulated instead as an idle reserve.

The usual reading of this situation – in terms of administrative inefficiency or political capture – is correct but partial. From the framework PROCIP has been building, what matters is that JAPDEVA embodies a form of port-city interface that the European vocabulary cannot name: it is not a waterfront case because no urban regeneration is envisaged; it is not a port authority because it no longer operates the main terminal; it is not port-city governance because the municipalities of Limón and Matina barely participate in its board. It is, rather, a hybrid figure – residual operator, nominal regulator, development agency dependent on the royalty – that can only be understood by incorporating the historical dimension of a province with a strong Afro-descendant and Caribbean memory, historically peripheral to the Central Valley. The city of Limón looks at the modern terminal from that distinctive cultural memory, and at JAPDEVA with a redistributive expectation that forty years of unfulfilled promises have rendered legitimately sceptical.

Puntarenas

Puntarenas, finally, is the theoretically most productive tension: a port city that lost its commercial function – first relocated to Caldera in 1981, then consolidated there – without ever resolving its subsequent urban identity, and which today intermittently undertakes exercises in coastal reinvention – cruise tourism, seafront promenade, cultural initiatives – that have yet to find a stable institutional interlocutor. It is the Central American case closest to the European post-port waterfront pattern, and also the one that best demonstrates why that pattern, transplanted uncritically, does not work.

A Framework of Our Own, Under Construction

The three Central American cases exceed the European repertoire not because they are more complex, but because they respond to another history. The Panamanian hub raises the question of geopolitical governance; the Honduran concession, that of the asymmetry between a global operator and a host state; the Costa Rican cases, and most especially the institutional figure of JAPDEVA, raise the most uncomfortable question: how to translate the port rent of a global terminal into effective development for a historically excluded province, when the institutional design that should perform that translation is itself shaped by the very legacy it is meant to remedy. Building an analytical framework that articulates these three dimensions is the task PROCIP has been taking on, in dialogue with RETE and AIVP, for nearly two decades. The lighthouse that this section of PORTUS shines today over Central America does not point to any port in particular, but to the interface that is still to be built.


HEAD IMAGE | Aerial view of Limón, Costa Rica: in the foreground, the state-owned JAPDEVA dock with its gantry crane; in the centre, the historical urban core of the city; in the background, the Moín Container Terminal (TCM) operated by APM Terminals. The image captures, in a single frame, the spatial and institutional coexistence of the two port operators of the Costa Rican Caribbean. (Source: VIDEA Audiovisuales, 2023).


NOTES

[1] Panama Maritime Authority (AMP), National Port System report, preliminary figures 2025.

[2] Operadora Portuaria Centroamericana (OPC), corporate statement on the USD 100 million investment in the second phase of Puerto Cortés expansion, February 2026.

[3] Comptroller General of the Republic of Costa Rica, audit reports on the execution of the APM Terminals-JAPDEVA royalty, 2024-2025; Law 9764 on the Restructuring of JAPDEVA (2019); TCM-APM Terminals concession contract (2011).


REFERENCES

AIVP (2021), Agenda 2030 for sustainable port cities, Association Internationale Villes et Ports, Le Havre.

Alemany, J. & Bruttomesso, R. (eds.) (2011), La ciudad portuaria del siglo XXI: nuevos desafíos en la relación Puerto-Ciudad, RETE, Venecia. ISBN 978-88-906509-0-1.

Autoridad Marítima de Panamá (2026), Sistema Portuario Nacional: estadísticas 2025, AMP, Ciudad de Panamá.

Ducruet, C. (2011), “The port city in multidisciplinary analysis”, in Alemany, J. & Bruttomesso, R. (eds.), The port city in the XXIst century: new challenges in the relationship between port and city, RETE Publications, Venice, pp. 32-49.

Hoyle, B. (2000), “Global and local change on the port-city waterfront”, in Geographical Review, vol. 90, no. 3, pp. 395-417.

Ríos Duarte, R. & Corrales Mora, M. (2011), “PROCIP. Programa Integral de Investigación para el Desarrollo de las Ciudades Portuarias, Costa Rica”, en Alemany, J. & Bruttomesso, R. (eds.), La ciudad portuaria del siglo XXI: nuevos desafíos en la relación Puerto-Ciudad, RETE, Venecia, pp. 290-297.

Royal Haskoning (2008), Plan Maestro para el complejo portuario Limón-Moín, Informe técnico 9R4672.21, JAPDEVA/Senter, Nijmegen.



Article reference for citation:

RÍOS DUARTE, Roger. “Port Central America: Three Countries, Three Models, One Unresolved Interface”. PORTUS | Port-City Relationship and Urban Waterfront Redevelopment, 51 (August 2026). RETE Publisher, Venice. ISSN 2282-5789.
URL: https://portusonline.org/port-central-america-three-countries-three-models-one-unresolved-interface/

RÍOS DUARTE, Roger. “Centroamérica portuaria: tres países, tres modelos, una interfaz por resolver”. PORTUS | Port-City Relationship and Urban Waterfront Redevelopment, 51 (August 2026). RETE Publisher, Venice. ISSN 2282-5789.
URL: https://portusonline.org/port-central-america-three-countries-three-models-one-unresolved-interface/